[h]globar warming
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bsmd
Peru186 Posts
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BG1
Canada1550 Posts
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ieatkids5
United States4628 Posts
Oh, and use Wikipedia and Google. | ||
garandou
Germany518 Posts
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evanthebouncy!
United States12796 Posts
THread will be closed in 1 hour atm, good luck!! ROFL GLOBAR warming :p | ||
Manifesto7
Osaka26979 Posts
The tests confirm original post-mortem blood samples that were taken from driver Henri Paul and showed he had three times the French legal limit of alcohol in his blood, the BBC said, quoting from a documentary scheduled to air on the network Sunday. Paul, Diana and her friend Dodi Fayed were killed when the Mercedes they were travelling in crashed in the Pont d'Alma tunnel in Paris on Aug. 31, 1997, while the couple were being pursued by photographers. Conspiracy theories Rumours and conspiracy theories continue to swirl around the death of the former wife of Prince Charles, despite a French judge's 1999 ruling the crash was an accident. An investigation later concluded Paul had been drinking and was driving at high speed. Conspiracy theorists have claimed Paul's blood samples were swapped with blood from someone else — who was drunk — and contended the driver had not been drinking the night Diana died. An official British report into the crash, to be published Thursday, is expected to find her death was an accident. Continue Article The Observer newspaper said the report, compiled by former British Metropolitan Police chief John Stevens, would conclude Paul was drunk at the time of the crash. Among the report's findings, the newspaper said, was the fact the U.S. Secret Service was bugging Diana's phone without the approval of its British counterpart on the night of her death. The newspaper said U.S. officials assured Stevens the secretly recorded conversations shed no new light on her death. It said Stevens' report would also confirm claims Paul had been in the pay of the French intelligence services. British police declined comment on the BBC report or Stevens's investigation. The BBC reported that an unidentified source with access to the French investigation said within the last year French officials took a DNA profile from Paul's blood samples and matched it with the DNA ofhis parents, proving the samples had not been switched. Prof. Andre Lienhart, who reviewed the emergency services' response for the French investigation, told the program, called The Conspiracy Files, a key factor in the accident was Diana had not worn a seat belt. "What is certain is that she was not wearing a seat belt and this made things worse," Lienhart was quoted as saying in extracts screened Saturday. "We would like to think that if she had been wearing a seat belt, we'd have been able to save her." This week, a former judge who will preside over Diana's British inquest said preliminary hearings will be held in public and not in private, as had been planned, after a protest from Fayed's father Mohammed, who owns Harrods department store. The inquest, convened and then swiftly adjourned in 2004, is due to formally resume next year. Preliminary hearings will be held Jan. 8-9 at the Royal Courts of Justice. | ||
MaNNeRDex
United States169 Posts
The cheese in the photo was my first attempt and the best cheese I ever tasted. While it's easy to forget what great cheeses taste like and easy to glorify one's own efforts, the point is, making cheese at home is just another of life's learning processes. While not a slapdash project nor immune to disasters, simple cheeses are no more difficult to make than bread. Cottage cheese can be made with equipment and raw materials found in any kitchen. More advanced cheeses require some additional equipment and raw materials but it can all be learned by anyone willing to make the effort. I would put it at about the same level of complexity as making beer or wine at home. | ||
Orome
Switzerland11984 Posts
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ieatkids5
United States4628 Posts
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Kennigit
Canada19447 Posts
OMFG HE H@5 N1Nj@ 5K|llz!!!!!!! UNDA DA SEE!!!!!!!! | ||
Excalibur_Z
United States12181 Posts
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Kennigit
Canada19447 Posts
On December 09 2006 17:18 bsmd wrote: I have a global warming speech that has to be as close to 3 mins as possible.it has to be 2 pages long any good links or info i can get from? thx in advance OMG Loose Change is incredible!!!! did you know that the government made a conspiracy to like kill all the americans so that they can go to war and kill moore pplz>? lmaloas soooooo bad ass ^^ | ||
Kennigit
Canada19447 Posts
omg oprah married someone :o | ||
dronebabo
10866 Posts
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OctoPuSs
Canada5279 Posts
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DeadVessel
United States6269 Posts
Pope Julius II had intended that the war would curb Venetian influence in northern Italy, and had, to this end, created the League of Cambrai (named after Cambrai, where the negotiations took place), an alliance against the Republic that included, besides himself, Louis XII of France, Emperor Maximilian I, and Ferdinand I of Spain. Although the League was initially successful, friction between Julius and Louis caused it to collapse by 1510; Julius then allied himself with Venice against France. The Veneto-Papal alliance eventually expanded into the Holy League, which drove the French from Italy in 1512; disagreements about the division of the spoils, however, led Venice to abandon the alliance in favor of one with France. Under the leadership of Francis I, who had succeeded Louis to the throne, the French and Venetians would, through their victory at Marignano in 1515, regain the territory they had lost; the treaties of Noyon and Brussels, which ended the war the next year, would essentially return the map of Italy to the status quo of 1508. | ||
fusionsdf
Canada15390 Posts
On December 09 2006 18:11 dronebabo wrote: LavenderGray (3 days ago) This is Satan's greatest victory. HAAADO GEI~! | ||
alpskomleko
Slovenia950 Posts
Many ashtrays feature three notches at the edges, two of which correspond to the width of a cigarette and one to that of the diameter of a cigar. These notches serve as rests for the cigarette(s) or cigar while still burning. The simplest, most common ashtray design is that of a circle with a hollow cylindrical rim around a flat surface, similar to a drinking container such as a glass or cup but larger in diameter and much more shallow. However, this is not the only design of ashtrays: they are widespread homeware, therefore designs are plentiful and occasionally kitschy. Other variations include car ashtrays, and those in toilets or other public places, provided by councils for the purpose of keeping towns and cities clean. In Spain, some ashtrays consist of two interlocking parts, the bottom of which is filled with water to extinguish ash and mute its smell. Ashtrays are typically manufactured from glass, stoneware, porcelain or metals such as silver or aluminium; however, some are made of wood, marble, or clay. Some ashtrays are branded with the logo of a company (such as a cigarette manufacturer) for the purpose of promotion. Ashtrays of the late 1940s to early 1970s were freeform vehicles for Googie styling. As part of a table setting during the 1950s and 1960s, small personal ashtrays were commonly placed on the top right-hand side, behind the wine and water glasses. In countries with rapidly declining numbers of smokers, such as Sweden and others which have recent passed anti-smoking legislation, ashtrays are found in large quantities in second-hand shops and flea markets, seeing little demand. An ashtray filled with ash and butts is often used as a symbol in marketing and public information for bad health and unhealthy lifestyle. | ||
Meta
United States6225 Posts
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StarN
United States2587 Posts
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QuietIdiot
7004 Posts
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perLi is 2down
United States533 Posts
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decafchicken
United States19904 Posts
In the 19th century scientists used the idea of random motions of molecules in the development of statistical mechanics in order to explain phenomena in thermodynamics and the properties of gases. According to some standard interpretations of quantum mechanics, microscopic phenomena are objectively random. That is, in an experiment where all causally relevant parameters are controlled, there will still be some aspects of the outcome which vary randomly. An example of such an experiment is placing a single unstable atom in a controlled environment; it cannot be predicted how long it will take for the atom to decay; only the probability of decay within a given time can be calculated. Thus quantum mechanics does not specify the outcome of individual experiments but only the probabilities. Hidden variable theories attempt to escape the view that nature contains irreducible randomness: such theories posit that in the processes that appear random, unobservable (hidden) properties with a certain statistical distribution are somehow at work behind the scenes, determining the outcome in each case. [edit] In biology The theory of evolution ascribes the observed diversity of life to random genetic mutations some of which are retained in the gene pool due to the improved chance for survival and reproduction that those mutated genes confer on individuals who possess them. The characteristics of an organism arise to some extent deterministically (e.g., under the influence of genes and the environment) and to some extent randomly. For example, genes and exposure to light only control the density of freckles that appear on a person's skin; whereas the exact location of individual freckles appears to be random [citation needed]. Note that this effect isn't limited to physical characteristics. Sexual orientation also appears to have a random element, for example. In identical twin studies, such twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation than two randomly chosen individuals in any given population. This correlation is attributable to genetics and chemical influences within the womb if the twins are adopted and raised in separate environments, but could be due to either genetic or environmental factors if they are raised in the same environment. However, even identical twins raised in the same environment do not have always have the same sexual orientation. In cases where there is a difference in sexual orientation between the two, this is typically ascribed to a random element, although this could also result from a pattern of events more complex than is currently understood [citation needed]. [edit] In mathematics The mathematical theory of probability arose from attempts to formulate mathematical descriptions of chance events, originally in the context of gambling but soon in connection with situations of interest in physics. Statistics is used to infer the underlying probability distribution of a collection of empirical observations. For the purposes of simulation it is necessary to have a large supply of random numbers, or means to generate them on demand. Algorithmic information theory studies, among other topics, what constitutes a random sequence. The central idea is that a string of bits is random if and only if it is shorter than any computer program that can produce that string (Chaitin-Kolmogorov randomness) - this basically means that random strings are those that cannot be compressed. Pioneers of this field include Andrey Kolmogorov, Ray Solomonoff, Gregory Chaitin, Anders Martin-Löf, and others. | ||
decafchicken
United States19904 Posts
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Empyrean
16927 Posts
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNQPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ | ||
Empyrean
16927 Posts
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BG1
Canada1550 Posts
On December 09 2006 20:13 Empyrean wrote: Find the mistake in the above. "Q" instead of an "O" 6 lines from the bottom. Very predictable | ||
littlechava
United States7215 Posts
On December 09 2006 19:53 StarN wrote: http://youtube.com/watch?v=97PoJJX5L5w&mode=related&search= ROFL | ||
Empyrean
16927 Posts
Find it in this one. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abodefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmncpqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz EDIT: it's really easy if you unfocus your eyes and just stare at the mass of fuzz...you can tell where the fuzz is off. | ||
TerrellOwens
United States8 Posts
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skyglow1
New Zealand3962 Posts
On December 09 2006 20:32 Empyrean wrote: YOU FOUND MY SECRET!! Find it in this one. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abodefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmncpqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz EDIT: it's really easy if you unfocus your eyes and just stare at the mass of fuzz...you can tell where the fuzz is off. Lol its a stereo 3d image that forms when you relax your eyes and let the 2 sets of alphabets converge into 1. The mistake is at 7 lines from the bottom "c" instead of "o". | ||
Haemonculus
United States6980 Posts
On December 09 2006 20:41 TerrellOwens wrote: This guy's gay yo.. Someone ban this retard. Just randomly posting football pics in random threads. | ||
perLi is 2down
United States533 Posts
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Dexxus
United States329 Posts
In order to maintain distance and secrecy from the mainstream club scene (or perhaps due to a lack of affordable, receptive venues) warehouses, rental halls, and outside locations are most often served as rave venues. Some police and government officials from several countries have presented laws that make raving illegal, in an effort to curtail rave parties. Such laws consequently forced regional electronic dance music events to move to formal venues, such as nightclubs and amphitheatres. Some venues and jurisdictions additionally prohibited certain types of rave fashion and paraphernalia - i.e. glowsticks. Early raves were completely do it yourself; only a small number of people contributed to event production and promotion. Self-styled production and promotion companies have increasingly organized raves; the "companies" were usually unofficial or loosely defined. Some of the more well-known rave promotion companies have included Brotherhood of Boom, Go ventures, Insomniac, Mushgroove, Freebass Society, and Pure. The companies promote their events by creating and distributing fliers and online bulletins. The illegal nature of these events and the need to play 'cat and mouse' with police forces have undoubtedly contributed to the 'underground' appeal of the events. As law enforcement agencies increasingly began paying attention to raves, concealing a party's location became important to an event's success. To that end, event organizers sometimes either promoted events solely by word-of-mouth, or would only reveal the date and location of the event to subscribers of an electronic mailing list or via voicemail. Some even went so far as to provide a series of clues or map checkpoints that ultimately led to the location of the rave. | ||
ManaBlue
Canada10458 Posts
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Last.Midnight
Australia871 Posts
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azndsh
United States4447 Posts
QED | ||
alpskomleko
Slovenia950 Posts
AAA AAB AAA find the mistake and win 20$ | ||
Evilmonkey.
United States1628 Posts
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AmorVincitOmnia
Kenya3846 Posts
On December 09 2006 19:53 StarN wrote: http://youtube.com/watch?v=97PoJJX5L5w&mode=related&search= IT'S OVER NINE FUCKING THOUSAND LMFAO too high for that gg all other videos | ||
FBS1
United Kingdom875 Posts
That was great, human 1 tank 0 | ||
KwarK
United States40792 Posts
On December 09 2006 19:59 QuietIdiot wrote: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zYRhVcJsypg Holy shit. I've never seen such repressed childhood trauma in someone. That is fucking serious. He really, really should get some help. | ||
FBS1
United Kingdom875 Posts
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Xeofreestyler
Belgium6733 Posts
On December 10 2006 06:20 Kwark wrote: Holy shit. I've never seen such repressed childhood trauma in someone. That is fucking serious. He really, really should get some help. omfg :/ poor dude | ||
GoChannes
Netherlands91 Posts
braincontrolling fungi OMG scaaaary | ||
Nyovne
Netherlands19124 Posts
ZHE ANZHI HEUMWORK KRUSADE WILL VORHERRSCHEN | ||
TehKris
Norway322 Posts
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vGl-CoW
Belgium8305 Posts
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Yogurt
United States4258 Posts
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Ethenielle
Norway1006 Posts
He is perhaps best known for his 1973 hit song, "Right Place, Wrong Time", which reached #9 on the Billboard Hot 100. He was also a prominent session musician at this time, playing piano, for example, on the popular Carly Simon and James Taylor duet of "Mockingbird". He also contributed the song "More and More" to Simon's Playing Possum album. Dr. John has also done vocals for Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits' "Luv dat chicken..." jingle, as well as the theme song ("My Opinionation") for the early-1990s television sitcom Blossom. His movie credits include Martin Scorsese's documentary The Last Waltz (in which he joins The Band for a performance of his song "Such a Night") , the 1978 Beatles inspired musical "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", and Blues Brothers 2000 (in which he joins the fictional band The Louisiana Gator Boys to perform the songs "How Blue Can You Get" and "New Orleans"). He also wrote and performed the score for the film version of John Steinbeck's "Cannery Row" released in 1982. In September 2005 he performed Fats Domino's "Walkin' to New Orleans" to close the Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast telethon for relief of Hurricane Katrina, which had devastated his hometown of New Orleans and other areas. In November 2005, he released a four-song EP, Sippiana Hericane, to benefit New Orleans Musicians Clinic, Salvation Army, and the Jazz Foundation of America. On February 5, 2006, he joined fellow New Orleans native Aaron Neville, Detroit resident Aretha Franklin and a 150-member choir for the national anthem at Super Bowl XL as part of a pre-game tribute to New Orleans. On February 8, 2006, he joined Allen Toussaint, Bonnie Raitt, The Edge, and Irma Thomas to perform "We Can Can" as the closing performance at the Grammy Awards. On July 30, 2006, Dr. John performed a solo piano benefit for New Orleans composer and arranger Wardell Quezergue (King Floyd's "Groove Me") at a New Orleans Musicians Relief Fund benefit at the Black Orchid Theatre in Chicago. Special guest Mike Mills of R.E.M. was in attendance, along with an all-star funk band. | ||
lil.sis
China4650 Posts
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lil.sis
China4650 Posts
On December 09 2006 21:01 Last.Midnight wrote: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umBMq7gmDp0 the force is strong in this one | ||
fanta[Rn]
Japan2465 Posts
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CaucasianAsian
Korea (South)11558 Posts
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fanta[Rn]
Japan2465 Posts
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MannerGent
United States326 Posts
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garandou
Germany518 Posts
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XCetron
5225 Posts
Japan gonna own us all with their mechas.......... | ||
bsmd
Peru186 Posts
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Alborz
Canada1551 Posts
On December 09 2006 17:18 bsmd wrote: I have a global warming speech that has to be as close to 3 mins as possible.it has to be 2 pages long any good links or info i can get from? thx in advance go out and rent a movie called The Inconvenient Truth, it discusses and states the effects of global warming etc. also, you may notice 90% of the replies in this thread are random crap, its because you've blatantly gone out and asked someone else to do your work for you. | ||
Hurricane
United States3939 Posts
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skyglow1
New Zealand3962 Posts
On December 10 2006 16:09 bsmd wrote: what the hell is happening here If theres a homework thread made then everyone joins in and posts random stuff because we don't want homework threads. Usually deters the original poster too. | ||
Unforgiven
Venezuela238 Posts
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Unforgiven_ve
Venezuela1232 Posts
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Unforgiven
Venezuela238 Posts
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Eduardo!!
United States86 Posts
On December 10 2006 16:19 PTC-Hurricane wrote: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJpXEerV_as gosu | ||
j0ehoe
United States2705 Posts
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Vin{MBL}
5185 Posts
>_> (lit. "empty hand") is a martial art of Ryūkyūan origin. The word "karate" comes from kara (空:から), meaning empty, and te (手:て) meaning hand. Karate has a rich and diverse history of development, incorporating countless influences from other martial arts and cultures. Today, karate is known primarily as a hard style striking art, featuring linear punches, blocks, kicks, knee/elbow strikes and open handed techniques. However, soft style punches and blocks, grappling, joint manipulations, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point striking are often an inherent part of many karate styles. he Practice of Karate Motobu Choki in Naifanchi-dachi, one of the basic Karate stances Enlarge Motobu Choki in Naifanchi-dachi, one of the basic Karate stances In general, there are many components to modern karate training. One common division is between the areas of kihon (basics or fundamentals), kata (forms), and kumite (sparring). Another popular division is between art, sport, and self defense training. Weapons comprise another important training area, as well as the psychological elements incorporated into a proper kokoro (attitude) such as perseverence, fearlessness, virtue, and leadership skills. Often in the execution of a technique, karateka are encouraged to issue a loud kiai or 'spirit shout'. [edit] Kata (Forms) Kata (型:かた) means "form" or "pattern," and despite how they might appear to the outsider, are not simply aerobic routines. They are patterns of movements and techniques that demonstrate physical combat principles. Kata may be thought of as fixed sequences of movements that address various types of attack and defense under ideal circumstances. It is important to remember that they were developed before literacy was commonplace in Okinawa or China, so physical routines were the logical method for preserving a body of this type of information. It is also important to remember that the moves themselves may have multiple interpretations as self-defense techniques- there is no 'standard right or wrong' way to interpret them, but interpretations may have more or less utility for actual fighting. Kata is a sequence of specific Karate moves that must be practised and ready to perform at a grading for one to grade to the next colored belt. [edit] Kumite (Sparring) Kumite (組手:くみて) is literally "meeting of hands," and has many incarnations. Sparring may be constrained by many rules or it may be free sparring, and today is practiced both as sport and for self-defense training. Sport sparring tends to be one hit "tag" type contact for points. Depending on style or teacher, practical aikido and judo-type takedowns and grappling may be involved alongside the punching and kicking. [edit] Kokoro (Attitude) Kokoro (心:こころ) is a concept that crosses through many martial arts, but has no single discrete meaning. In context, it means something like "heart," "character," or "attitude." Character is a central concept in karate, and in keeping with the dō nature of modern karate, there is a great emphasis on improving oneself. It is often said that the art of karate is for self-defense; not injuring one's opponent is the highest expression of the art. Some popularly repeated quotes implicating this concept include: "The ultimate aim of Karate lies not in victory or defeat, but in the perfection of the character of its participants." -Gichin Funakoshi[citation needed] "The Way is not meant as a way of fighting. It is a path on which you travel to find your own inner peace and harmony. It is yours to seek and find." -Hironori Ohtsuka[citation needed] Respect is another very important part of karate; it is about cleansing oneself and strengthening character. The spirit of "osu" is to push onself to the limit of one's ability, to persevere under pressure, to endure. This is why it is said that "Karate always begins and ends with rei."[citation needed] [edit] Kobudō (Weapons Training) Although technically meaning only "old martial way," in context kobudō refers specifically to the old martial way of Okinawa, and even more specifically, to the traditional weapons of Okinawa. These include most notably the kama (sickle), tonfa (stick with a handle), sai (fork), and bō (staff), although there are several others, as well. [edit] Conditioning Many styles of karate also include specialized conditioning equipment, known in Japanese collectively as "hojo undo." Some of the more common devices are the makiwara, the chi-ishi (a kind of off center free weight), and nigiri game (large jars used for grip strength). [edit] Sport Japanese karate competition can be in three disciplines: sparring (kumite]), forms kata (empty handed forms), or kobudō kata (weapons forms); competitors may enter either as individuals or as part of a team, or both. Evaluation for kata is done by a panel of judges; sparring is judged by a head referee, usually with assistant referees at the side of the sparring area. Sparring matches are often divided by weight classes. Some traditionalists are concerned that the emphasis on competition is antithetical to the deeper values of the art. They feel that sport competition promotes a highly compromised interpretation of the art, including point fighting and demonstration of forms for entertainment value. In less traditional forms of tournament, usually in the United States of America, kata are occasionally set to music and even weapons that light up or glow are sometimes used. In extreme cases, martial practicality is eschewed in favor of gymnastics. Traditionalists feel this should not be regarded as emblematic of karate; others feel the publicity is helpful.[citation needed] Self-defense Karate may be practiced for many reasons, but was developed for self-defense. The kata contain a variety of techniques intended for this purpose: hand strikes, kicks, locking, and grappling. However, proper training is required to make these techniques usable against a determined aggressor. Most styles include some form of two-person pre-arranged self-defense exercises as well as sparring or semi-sparring (structured sparring with limited options allowed for either partner). This allows for the development of a sense of range and timing. A number of styles practice hard-contact sparring. Some schools are criticized for claiming to teach practical martial arts despite a lack of two-person training to develop needed attributes. An instructor may believe that practicing kata suffices to develop the necessary skills. Other schools may intentionally place emphasis on tournament preparation, physical conditioning, or aesthetics (developing form for form's sake), rather than self-defense. These schools will typically still teach self-defense techniques as well. | ||
alffla
Hong Kong20321 Posts
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Artanis[Xp]
Netherlands12942 Posts
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WastedYouth
United States563 Posts
Anyway it's all about global warming and it gives a lot of useful information and I thought it would be cool to make clips of it to show in class. I forget exactly what episode it was but I know it was in season 2. If you're interested happy hunting http://www.tv-links.co.uk/My Name Is Earl_links.html | ||
Misca
Netherlands605 Posts
Someone please explain, What's funny about this? | ||
Vin{MBL}
5185 Posts
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j0ehoe
United States2705 Posts
On December 15 2006 08:54 Misca wrote: Someone please explain, What's funny about this? KAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA MEHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH AHHHHHHHHHHHHHH MEHHHHHHHHH .....long pause.... AHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH | ||
Sir Rexus Henk
Netherlands341 Posts
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iNcontroL
USA29055 Posts
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Smurg
Australia3818 Posts
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Secular humanism is a humanist philosophy that upholds reason, ethics, and justice and specifically rejects the supernatural and the spiritual as warrants of moral reflection and decision-making. Like other types of humanism, secular humanism is a life stance or a praxis focusing on the way human beings can lead good and happy lives (eupraxsophy). The term was coined in the 20th century to make a clear distinction from "religious humanism". A related concept is scientific humanism, which the biologist Edward O. Wilson claimed to be "the only worldview compatible with science's growing knowledge of the real world and the laws of nature".[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Tenets * 2 Relationship to other concepts * 3 Secular humanism today * 4 Criticism * 5 Is secular humanism a religion? * 6 Legal mentions (United States) o 6.1 Case law + 6.1.1 Torcaso v. Watkins + 6.1.2 Fellowship of Humanity v. County of Alameda + 6.1.3 Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia + 6.1.4 Peloza v. Capistrano School District o 6.2 Controversy o 6.3 Legislation + 6.3.1 Hatch amendment * 7 Historical and modern references * 8 Notable secular humanists * 9 Secular humanism manifestos * 10 See also o 10.1 Humanist and related organizations o 10.2 Related philosophies * 11 Footnotes * 12 External links [edit] Tenets Secular humanism describes a world view with the following elements and principles:[2] * Need to test beliefs - A conviction that dogmas, ideologies and traditions, whether religious, political or social, must be weighed and tested by each individual and not simply accepted on faith. * Reason, evidence, scientific method - Commitment to the use of critical reason, factual evidence, and scientific methods of inquiry, rather than faith and mysticism, in seeking solutions to human problems and answers to important human questions. * Fulfillment, growth, creativity - A primary concern with fulfillment, growth, and creativity for both the individual and humankind in general. * Search for truth - A constant search for objective truth, with the understanding that new knowledge and experience constantly alter our imperfect perception of it. * This life - A concern for this life and a commitment to making it meaningful through better understanding of ourselves, our history, our intellectual and artistic achievements, and the outlooks of those who differ from us. * Ethics - A search for viable individual, social and political principles of ethical conduct, judging them on their ability to enhance human well-being and individual responsibility. * Building a better world - A conviction that with reason, an open exchange of ideas, good will, and tolerance, progress can be made in building a better world for ourselves and our children. A Secular Humanist Declaration was an argument for and statement of belief in Democratic Secular Humanism. The document was issued in 1980 by The Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH), now the Council for Secular Humanism (CSH). [edit] Relationship to other concepts When humanists use the phrase secular humanism it is typically to emphasize differences relative to religion or religious humanism. There are a number of ways in which secular and religious humanism can differ:[3] * Religious humanists may value rituals and ceremonies as means of affirming their life stance. Secular humanists are typically not interested in using rituals and ceremonies.[4] * Some religious humanists may seek profound "religious" experiences, such as those that others would associate with the presence of God, despite interpreting these experiences differently. Secular humanists would generally not pursue such experiences. * Some varieties of nontheistic religious humanism may conceive of the word divine as more than metaphoric even in the absence of a belief in a traditional God; they may believe in ideals that transcend physical reality; or they may conceive of some experiences as "numinous" or uniquely religious. Secular humanism regards all such terms as, at best, metaphors for truths rooted in the material world. * Some varieties of religious humanism, such as Christian humanism include belief in God, traditionally defined. Secular humanism is skeptical about God and the supernatural and believes that these are not useful concepts for addressing human problems. While some humanists embrace calling themselves secular humanists, others prefer the term Humanist, capitalized and without any qualifying adjective. The terms secular humanism and Humanism overlap, but have different connotations. The term secular humanism emphasizes a non-religious focus, whereas the term Humanism deemphasizes this and may even encompass some nontheistic varieties of religious humanism. The term Humanism also emphasizes considering one's humanism to be a life stance. Secular humanism advocates secularism but is a broader concept. Secularism has a number of usages but generally emphasize limits on the role of religious or supernatural considerations in the affairs of society or government. Secular humanism adds to these positions a comprehensive perspective on life, including affirmation of human dignity and the importance of ethics. Secular humanism is a broad philosophic position and not simply a statement about belief or non-belief in God. As such, it is inaccurate to identify secular humanism as being the same thing as nontheism, atheism, or agnosticism. While secular humanists are generally nontheistic, atheist, or agnostic, the converse may not be true. Many nontheists, atheists, and agnostics adhere to the tenets of secular humanism, but this is not intrinsically the case.[5] Secular humanism has appeal to atheists, agnostics, freethinkers, empiricists, objectivists, rationalists, skeptics and materialists, as well as to some Buddhists, Hindus and Confucians. Christian fundamentalist opponents of humanism typically use the term secular humanism pejoratively to mean atheism or secularism or to lump together all nontheistic varieties of humanism. Humanists object to such usage, finding it misleading or overly broad. [edit] Secular humanism today While secular humanist organizations are found in all parts of the world, one of the largest humanist organisations in the world (relative to population) is Norway's Human-Etisk Forbund,[6] which had over 69,000 members out of a population of around 4.6 million in 2004.[7] In certain areas of the world, secular humanism finds itself in conflict with religious fundamentalism, especially over the issue of the separation of church and state. A faction of secular humanists may judge religions as superstitious, regressive, and/or close-minded, while the majority of religious fundamentalists see secular humanism as a threat to the values they say are set out in religious texts, such as the Bible and the Qur'an.[8] [edit] Criticism Some criticize the philosophy of secular humanism because it offers no eternal truths nor a relationship with the divine.[9][10] They comment that a philosophy bereft of these beliefs[11] leaves humanity adrift in a foggy sea[12] of postmodern cynicism and anomie.[13] Humanists respond that such criticisms reflect a failure to look at the actual content of humanist philosophy, which far from being cynical and postmodern, is rooted in optimistic,[14][15] idealistic[16] attitudes that trace back to the Enlightenment,[17][18][19] or further, back to Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers and Chinese Confucianism.[2] [edit] Is secular humanism a religion? Some Christians maintain that secular humanism is a religion. Humanists say that secular humanism is not a religion, while acknowledging that some varieties of humanism may be religious in some senses of the word. Disputes around this subject are largely semantic. There is a continuum of humanist philosophies which may be divided into several categories: * A. Nontheistic non-religious humanism * B. Nontheistic religious humanism * C. Theistic religious humanism Adherents of the first category of humanism, A, emphatically do not regard their variety of humanism as a religion. Adherents of the last two categories of humanism, B and C, regard their variety of humanism as a religion. Confusion arises because proponents and opponents of humanism tend to define the term secular humanism differently. * Among proponents of humanism, secular humanism refers to category A. The current article relates primarily to secular humanism as defined in this fashion. * Among Christians who oppose humanism, secular humanism is used to refer to categories A and B, or even A, B and C. Fundamentalists use the descriptions of those in category B of their humanism as a religion to "prove" that "Secular Humanism is a religion." This angers those who actually call themselves secular humanists, those in category A, because their variety of humanism is "by definition not religious." So, the question of whether secular humanism is or is not a religion devolves into a question of semantics, and a question of whether or not people are to be trusted to know whether or not their own beliefs are religious in nature: * If one uses self-reporting of adherents to determine which beliefs are "religious" then: o Using the definition of those who self-identify as secular humanists, then secular humanism is emphatically not a religion. To these individuals, the word "secular" means "not religious" and is an assertion of their desire to be not associated with religion. o Using the fundamentalists' definition of secular humanism, the question of whether secular humanism is a religion or not is not coherent: secular humanism denotes a range of world views, some of which are religious and some of which are not. * If one does not use self-reporting of adherents to determine which beliefs are "religious" then: o What definition of "religion" one adheres to will determine whether or not some varieties of nontheistic humanism should be regarded as religious or not. Related legal questions are considered in a subsequent section. [edit] Legal mentions (United States) The issue of whether and in what sense secular humanism might be considered a religion, and what the implications of this would be has become the subject of legal maneuvering and political debate in the United States. [edit] Case law [edit] Torcaso v. Watkins The phrase "secular humanism" became prominent after it was used in the United States Supreme Court case Torcaso v. Watkins. In the 1961 decision, Justice Hugo Black commented in a footnote, "Among religions in this country which do not teach what would generally be considered a belief in the existence of God are Buddhism, Taoism, Ethical Culture, Secular Humanism, and others." Such footnotes, known as obiter dicta, are personal observations of the judge, and hence are incidental to reaching the opinion. [edit] Fellowship of Humanity v. County of Alameda The footnote in Torcaso v. Watkins referenced Fellowship of Humanity v. County of Alameda,[20] a 1957 case in which an organization of humanists[21] sought a tax exemption on the ground that they used their property "solely and exclusively for religious worship." Despite the group's non-theistic beliefs, the court determined that the activities of the Fellowship of Humanity, which included weekly Sunday meetings, were analogous to the activities of theistic churches and thus entitled to an exemption. The Fellowship of Humanity case itself referred to humanism but did not mention the term secular humanism. Nonetheless, this case was cited by Justice Black to justify the inclusion of Secular Humanism in the list of religions in his note. Presumably Justice Black added the word secular to emphasize the non-theistic nature of the Fellowship of Humanity and distinguish their brand of humanism from that associated with, for example, Christian humanism. [edit] Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia Another case alluded to in the Torcaso v. Watkins footnote, and said by some to have established secular humanism as a religion under the law, is the 1957 tax case of Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia [1] (101 U.S. App. D.C. 371). The Washington Ethical Society functions much like a church, but regards itself as a non-theistic religious institution, honoring the importance of ethical living without mandating a belief in a supernatural origin for ethics. The case involved denial of the Society's application for tax exemption as a religious organization. The U.S. Court of Appeals reversed the Tax Court's ruling, defined the Society as a religious organization, and granted its tax exemption. The Society terms its practice Ethical Culture. Though Ethical Culture is based on a humanist philosophy, Ethical Culture is regarded by some as a type of religious humanism. Hence, it would seem most accurate to say that this case affirmed that a religion need not be theistic to qualify as a religion under the law, rather than asserting that it established generic secular humanism as a religion. In the cases of both the Fellowship of Humanity and the Washington Ethical Society, the court decisions turned not so much on the particular beliefs of practitioners as on the function and form of the practice being similar to the function and form of the practices in other religious institutions. [edit] Peloza v. Capistrano School District The implication in Justice Black's footnote that secular humanism is a religion has been seized upon by religious opponents of the teaching of the theory of evolution, who have made the argument that teaching evolution amounts to teaching a religious idea. The claim that secular humanism could be considered a religion for legal purposes was examined by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in the case of Peloza v. Capistrano School District in 1994. In this case, a science teacher argued that, by requiring him to teach evolution, his school district was forcing him to teach the "religion" of secular humanism. The Court responded, "We reject this claim because neither the Supreme Court, nor this circuit, has ever held that evolutionism or secular humanism are 'religions' for Establishment Clause purposes." The Supreme Court refused to review the case. The decision in a subsequent case, Kalka v. Hawk et al., offered this commentary:[21] The Court's statement in Torcaso does not stand for the proposition that humanism, no matter in what form and no matter how practiced, amounts to a religion under the First Amendment. The Court offered no test for determining what system of beliefs qualified as a "religion" under the First Amendment. The most one may read into the Torcaso footnote is the idea that a particular non-theistic group calling itself the "Fellowship of Humanity" qualified as a religious organization under California law. [edit] Controversy Religious groups resentful of the separation of church and state attach great significance to the granting of legal protections to non-theistic organizations as religions. They argue that secular humanism—and by association secularism—has been granted religious status, that secularism in government and in the schools constitutes state favoritism towards a particular religion, and a double standard is used in granting religious protections to these groups while allowing the teaching of ideas such as evolution which are consistent with secularism.[22] U.S. courts have consistently rejected this interpretation. Often the discussion is not clearly framed. However, the rationale for believing there is no contradiction appears to include the following: * Beliefs involved are about more than secularism — Religious status has been granted to various non-theistic humanist organizations. Such organizations typically favor various aspects of secularism. However, humanism embraces a variety of ideas which are not part of secularism, for example, affirming human dignity. Even if a particular brand of humanism were to be regarded as a religion, that would not necessarily make particular positions, such as secularism, religious, as religious status could be based on other considerations. * Beliefs of a religious group can be non-religious — Even if a group did assert secularism in isolation to be its religion (no instances of this are known), this would not mean that secularism is in general a religious idea. ("Just because people count something in what they say is their religion does not make it inherently religious. If some people start worshipping chairs chairs shouldn't be kept out of school."[23]) * Court rulings haven't been about beliefs — Court rulings on particular non-theistic groups being religious have never ruled that the ideas of these groups were religious per se. Instead, rulings have generally said the groups in question functionally acted like other religious institutions and therefore were entitled to similar protections. (This fact has been obscured by imprecise comments, such as those of Justice Black, but is reflected in the text of particular rulings.) * Most advocates aren't religious[citation needed] — Ideas such as the scientific method and evolution are advocated primarily by people who do not regard these ideas as being part of their religions, lending credibility to the claim that these ideas are not inherently religious. Decisions about tax status have been based on whether or not an organization functions like a church. On the other hand, Establishment Clause cases turn on whether the ideas or symbols involved are inherently religious. An organization can function like a church while advocating beliefs that are not necessarily inherently religious. Author Marci Hamilton has pointed out that the "Moreover the debate is not between secularists and the religious. The debate is believers and non-believers on the one side debating believers and non-believers on the other side. You've got citizens who are ... of faith who believe in the separation of church and state and you have a set of believers who do not believe in the separation of church and state."[24] [edit] Legislation [edit] Hatch amendment The Education for Economic Security Act of 1984 included a section, Section 20 U,S.C.A. 4059, which initially read: "Grants under this subchapter ['Magnet School Assistance] may not be used for consultants, for transportation or for any activity which does not augment academic improvement." With no public notice, Senator Orrin Hatch tacked on to the proposed exclusionary subsection the words "or for any course of instruction the substance of which is secular Humanism."[25] Implementation of this provision ran into practical problems because neither the Senator's staff, nor the Senate's Committee on Labor and Human Resources, nor the Department of Justice could propose a definition of what would constitute a "course of instruction the substance of which is secular Humanism." So, this determination was left up to local school boards. The provision provoked a storm of controversy which within a year lead Senator Hatch to propose, and Congress to pass, an amendment to delete from the statute all reference to secular humanism. While this episode did not dissuade fundamentalists from continuing to object to what they regarded as the "teaching of secular humanism," it did point out the vagueness of the claim. [edit] Historical and modern references The term secularism was created in 1846 by George Jacob Holyoake in order to describe "a form of opinion which concerns itself only with questions, the issues of which can be tested by the experience of this life."[26] Historical use of the term humanism (reflected in some current academic usage), is related to the writings of pre-Socratic philosophers. These writings were lost to European societies until Renaissance scholars rediscovered them through Muslim sources and translated them from Arabic into European languages."[27] Thus the term humanist can mean a humanities scholar, as well as refer to The Enlightenment/ Renaissance intellectuals, and those who have agreement with the pre-Socratics, as distinct from secular humanists. See the article on humanism for additional history of this term. The meaning of the phrase "secular humanism" has evolved over time. This phrase was first known to have been used in the 1950's. It was used, for example, by Leo Pfeffer and by Joseph Blau, then professor emeritus of religion at Columbia University. However, as used initially the phrase did not have the connotations it later assumed. In 1958 Pfeffer used the term to mean "Those unaffiliated with organized religion and concerned with human values."[26] As mentioned previously, "secular humanism" was a term used by Justice Black in 1961 to refer to a non-theistic variety of humanism that its adherents considered to be religious. The phrase was seized upon by religious fundamentalists, with the inclusion of the word "secular" often used to cast humanists as anti-religious. By the 1970s the term was embraced by some humanists who, although critical of religion in its various guises, were deliberately non-religious, as opposed to anti-religious, which means that their humanism has nothing to do with spiritual, religious, or ecclesiastical doctrines, beliefs, or power structures. This is how "secular humanism" is most commonly understood by humanists today.[2] In a mockery of an Alabama judge's reference to secular humanism as a religion, musician and free speech advocate Frank Zappa established the "Church of American Secular Humanism."[28] Columnist Art Buchwald wrote a column, "Secular Humanists: Threat or Menace?", which poked fun at alarm about secular humanism.[29] [edit] Notable secular humanists Main article: List of humanists Some notable secular humanists are * Steve Allen * Isaac Asimov * Jeremy Bentham * Sir Arthur C. Clarke * Richard Dawkins * Sanal Edamaruku * E. M. Forster (see in particular his "What I Believe") * Victor Hugo * Julian Huxley - first President of the IHEU, a major Humanist organisation * Paul Kurtz * Corliss Lamont [2] * John Lennon * John Stuart Mill * Taslima Nasrin * Philip Pullman * Gene Roddenberry * Bertrand Russell * Carl Sagan * Charles Schultz * Michael Shermer * Peter Singer * Kurt Vonnegut * Ibn Warraq * E. O. Wilson [edit] Secular humanism manifestos There are numerous Humanist Manifestos and Declarations, including the following: * Humanist Manifesto II (1973) * A Secular Humanist Declaration (1980) * A Declaration of Interdependence (1988) * IHEU Minimum Statement on Humanism (1996) * HUMANISM: Why, What, and What For, In 882 Words (1996) * Humanist Manifesto 2000: A Call for a New Planetary Humanism (2000) * The Affirmations of Humanism: A Statement of Principles * Amsterdam Declaration (July 2002) * Core Principles of Humanism, Society of Ontario Freethinkers * Humanist Manifesto III (Humanism And Its Aspirations) (2003) [edit] See also [edit] Humanist and related organizations * American Atheists * American Humanist Association * Brights movement * British Humanist Association * Camp Quest * Center for Inquiry * Church of Life * Coalition for the Community of Reason * Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal * Council for Secular Humanism (formerly CODESH) * Freedom From Religion Foundation * Good Life Humanist Society * Godless Americans PAC (political action committee) * Institute for Humanist Studies * Internet Infidels * Military Association of Atheists and Freethinkers * National Center for Science Education * New Zealand Association of Rationalists and Humanists * Quackwatch * Scouting for All * Skeptics Society * Secular Student Alliance * Secular Web * World Transhumanist Association [edit] Related philosophies * Empiricism * Epicureanism * Eupraxsophy * Extropianism * Freethought * Humanism * Objectivism * Philosophical naturalism * Rationalism o Rationalist movement * Religious humanism * Secularism * Transhumanism [edit] Footnotes 1. ^ In Harvard Magazine December 2005, p. 33. 2. ^ a b c What Is Secular Humanism?. Council for Secular Humanism. 3. ^ Council for Secular Humanism - "Religious and Secular Humanism: What's the difference?" 4. ^ Though there are many exceptions; according to the Society for Humanistic Judaism, "Humanistic Jewish communities celebrate Jewish holidays and life cycle events (such as weddings and bar and bat mitzvah) with inspirational ceremonies that draw upon but go beyond traditional literature." 5. ^ Council for Secular Humanism - "Secular Humanism: a New Approach" 6. ^ http://www.human.no/templates/Page____2067.aspx 7. ^ http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/07/02/10/trosamf_en/tab-2004-10-21-01-en.html 8. ^ http://english.islamway.com/bindex.php?section=lessons&lesson_id=399&scholar_id=38 9. ^ Buber, Martin (1923) I and Thou (Ich und Du). ISBN 0-684-71725-5 10. ^ http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/cultr/documents/rc_pc_cultr_01091993_ 11. ^ Schaeffer, Francis A. How Should We Then Live? The Rise and Decline of Western Thought and Culture. ISBN 1-58134-536-4 12. ^ Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal (who would become Pope Benedict XVI) (1967) Introduction To Christianity. ISBN 1-58617-029-5 13. ^ http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1123996016072&pagename= 14. ^ http://www.wisdomquotes.com/000501.html 15. ^ http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=affirmations 16. ^ http://atheism.about.com/b/a/180098.htm 17. ^ http://www.bidstrup.com/humanist.htm 18. ^ http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/fred_edwords/humanism.html 19. ^ http://www.humanismtoday.org/vol12/hoertdoerfer.html 20. ^ Fellowship of Humanity v. County of Alameda, 153 Cal.App.2d 673, 315 P.2d 394 (1957). 21. ^ a b Ben Kalka v Kathleen Hawk, et al. (US D.C. Appeals No. 98-5485, 2000)] 22. ^ http://members.aol.com/Patriarchy/definitions/humanism_religion.htm 23. ^ http://forums.christianity.com/m_752565/mpage_12/tm.htm 24. ^ Point of Inquiry podcast (17:44), February 3, 2006. 25. ^ A discussion of "Secular humanism", on the site The Constitutional Principle: Separation of Church and State 26. ^ a b Secularism 101: Defining Secularism: Origins with George Jacob Holyoake 27. ^ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/arab-y67s11.html 28. ^ http://wiki.killuglyradio.com/index.php/Church_of_American_Secular_Humanism 29. ^ http://journals.aol.com/richardbk8/TheSentryNewsDigest/entries/1036 [edit] External links * British Humanist Association * Council for Secular Humanism (formerly CODESH) * The American Humanist Association o The Humanist (magazine) * The Humanist Association of Canada o Humanist Perspectives (magazine) * International Humanist and Ethical Union o International Humanist News is also available at www.iheu.org. * International Humanist and Ethical Youth Organisation * The Institute for Humanist Studies * Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations * Society for Humanistic Judaism * 10 Points of Humanism: A Definition from The Philosophy of Humanism by Corliss Lamont * The History and Philosophy of Humanism - Speech given by Steven D. Schafersman in Oxford, Ohio (September 24, 1995) * Site of the Romanian association Solidarity for Freedom of Conscience - Romanian/ English * Religious Movements Page on Secular Humanism * Nanovirus: a humanist perspective on technology, politics and culture * Is Secular Humanism a Religion?:Many Say It Is, but Secularists Say It Isn't * Secular Humanism in U. S. Supreme Court Cases * Ben Kalka v Kathleen Hawk, et al. (US D.C. Appeals No. 98-5485, 2000) * Secular Humanism, Religious Movements Homepage at the University of Virginia * Secular Humanism: A Survey by Stephen P. Weldon * Freethought Association of West Michigan * Secular Humanism debate guide * SecularSites * Thinking And Moral Problems * Religions And Their Source * Purpose * Developing A Universal Religion four Parts of a Wikibook. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism" Categories: Articles with unsourced statements | Secularism | Humanism | History of ideas | Atheism Views * Article * Discussion * Edit this page * History * Move * Watch Personal tools * Smurg * My talk * My preferences * My watchlist * My contributions * Log out Navigation * Main Page * Community Portal * Featured content * Current events * Recent changes * Random article * Help * Contact Wikipedia * Donations Search Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Printable version * Permanent link * Cite this article In other languages * Magyar * 日本語 * Português * Simple English * Svenska MediaWiki Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified 01:12, 15 December 2006. * All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) 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Mathematics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Math) Jump to: navigation, search For other meanings of "mathematics" or "math", see mathematics (disambiguation). Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, known today as the father of geometry; shown here in a detail of The School of Athens by Raphael. Enlarge Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, known today as the father of geometry; shown here in a detail of The School of Athens by Raphael. Portal:Mathematics Mathematics Portal Mathematics (colloquially, maths, or math in American English) is the body of knowledge centered on concepts such as quantity, structure, space, and change, and the academic discipline which studies them; Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusions".[1] It evolved, through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, from counting, calculation, measurement, and the study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Mathematicians explore such concepts, aiming to formulate new conjectures and establish their truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.[2] Knowledge and use of basic mathematics have always been an inherent and integral part of individual and group life. Refinements of the basic ideas are visible in ancient mathematical texts originating in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ancient India, and Ancient China, with increased rigour later introduced by the ancient Greeks. From this point on, the development continued in short bursts until the Renaissance period of the 16th century where mathematical innovations interacted with new scientific discoveries leading to an acceleration in understanding that continues to the present day.[3] Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including science, engineering, medicine and economics. The application of mathematics to such fields, often dubbed applied mathematics, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and has sometimes led to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics for its own sake without having any practical application in mind, although applications for what begins as pure mathematics are often discovered later.[4] Contents [hide] * 1 Etymology * 2 History * 3 Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics * 4 Notation, language, and rigor * 5 Mathematics as science * 6 Fields of mathematics o 6.1 Quantity o 6.2 Structure o 6.3 Space o 6.4 Change o 6.5 Foundations and philosophy o 6.6 Discrete mathematics o 6.7 Applied mathematics * 7 Common misconceptions o 7.1 Relationship between mathematics and physical reality * 8 See also * 9 Notes * 10 References * 11 External links [edit] Etymology The word "mathematics" (Greek: μαθηματικά) comes from the Greek μάθημα (máthēma), which means learning, study, science, and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (mathēmatikós), related to learning, or studious, which likewise further came to mean mathematical. In particular, μαθηματικὴ τέχνη (mathēmatikḗ tékhnē), in Latin ars mathematica, meant the mathematical art. The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form les mathématiques (and the less commonly used singular derivative la mathématique), goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica (Cicero), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (ta mathēmatiká), used by Aristotle, and meaning roughly "all things mathematical".[5] Despite the form and etymology, the word mathematics, like the names of arts and sciences in general, is used as a singular mass noun in English today. The colloquial English-language shortened forms perpetuate this singular/plural idiosyncrasy, as the word is shortened to math in North American English, while it is maths elsewhere (including Britain, Ireland, Australia and other Commonwealth countries). [edit] History A quipu, a counting device used by the Inca. Enlarge A quipu, a counting device used by the Inca. Main article: History of mathematics The evolution of mathematics might be seen to be an ever-increasing series of abstractions, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction was probably that of numbers. The realization that two apples and two oranges have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time — days, seasons, years. Arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of geometry. Further steps need writing or some other system for recording numbers such as tallies or the knotted strings called quipu used by the Inca empire to store numerical data. Numeral systems have been many and diverse. From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to taxation and commerce, to understand the relationships among numbers, to measure land, and to predict astronomical events. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of quantity, structure, space, and change. Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, "The number of papers and books included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs."[6] [edit] Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), an inventor of infinitesimal calculus. Enlarge Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), an inventor of infinitesimal calculus. Main article: Mathematical beauty Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in commerce, land measurement and later astronomy; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. Newton was one of the infinitesimal calculus inventors, Feynman invented the Feynman path integral using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what Eugene Wigner has called "the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics." As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between pure mathematics and applied mathematics. Several areas of applied mathematics have merged with related traditions outside of mathematics and become disciplines in their own right, including statistics, operations research, and computer science. Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty. Simplicity and generality are valued. There is beauty also in a clever proof, such as Euclid's proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers, and in a numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the fast Fourier transform. G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. [edit] Notation, language, and rigor In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single equation. Enlarge In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single equation. Main article: Mathematical notation Most of the mathematical notation in use today was not invented until the 16th century.[7] Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Words such as or and only have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Also confusing to beginners, words such as open and field have been given specialized mathematical meanings. Mathematical jargon includes technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable. It was said that Henri Poincaré was only elected to the Académie française so that he could tell them how to define automorphe in their dictionary.[citation needed] But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of mathematical proof. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "theorems", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject.[8] The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of Isaac Newton the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about computer-assisted proofs. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. Axioms in traditional thought were "self-evident truths", but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an axiomatic system. It was the goal of Hilbert's program to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to Gödel's incompleteness theorem every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final axiomatization of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but set theory in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. [edit] Mathematics as science Carl Friedrich Gauss, while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right[citation needed]. Enlarge Carl Friedrich Gauss, while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right[citation needed]. Carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".[9] In the original Latin Regina Scientiarum, as well as in German Königin der Wissenschaften, the word corresponding to science means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to natural science is of later date. If one considers science to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least pure mathematics, is not a science. Albert Einstein has stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality."[10] Many philosophers believe that mathematics is not experimentally falsifiable,[citation needed] and thus not a science according to the definition of Karl Popper. However, in the 1930s important work in mathematical logic showed that mathematics cannot be reduced to logic, and Karl Popper concluded that "most mathematical theories are, like those of physics and biology, hypothetico-deductive: pure mathematics therefore turns out to be much closer to the natural sciences whose hypotheses are conjectures, than it seemed even recently."[11] Other thinkers, notably Imre Lakatos, have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as theoretical physics) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is public knowledge and thus includes mathematics.[12] In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. Experimental mathematics continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not use the scientific method. In his 2002 book A New Kind of Science, Stephen Wolfram argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. While some in applied mathematics feel that they are scientists, those in pure mathematics often feel that they are working in an area more akin to logic and that they are, hence, fundamentally philosophers. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven liberal arts; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and engineering has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is created (as in art) or discovered (as in science). It is common to see universities divided into sections that include a division of Science and Mathematics, indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the philosophy of mathematics. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the Fields Medal,[13][14] established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is usually considered the equivalent of science's Nobel prize. Another major international award, the Abel Prize, was introduced in 2003. Both of these are awarded for a particular body of work, either innovation in a new area of mathematics or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "Hilbert's problems", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician David Hilbert. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the Riemann hypothesis) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. [edit] Fields of mathematics Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese abacus. Enlarge Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese abacus. As noted above, the major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict astronomical events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e., arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty. [edit] Quantity The study of quantity starts with numbers, first the familiar natural numbers and integers ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in arithmetic. The deeper properties of integers are studied in number theory, whence such popular results as Fermat's last theorem. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the twin prime conjecture and Goldbach's conjecture. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognised as a subset of the rational numbers ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the real numbers, which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalised to complex numbers. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include quarternions and octonions. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which formalise the concept of counting to infinite. Another area of study is size, which leads to the cardinal numbers and then to another conception of infinity: the aleph numbers, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. 1, 2, 3\,\! -2, -1, 0, 1, 2\,\! -2, \frac{2}{3}, 1.21\,\! -e, \sqrt{2}, 3, \pi\,\! 2, i, -2+3i, 2e^{i\frac{4\pi}{3}}\,\! Natural numbers Integers Rational numbers Real numbers Complex numbers [edit] Structure Many mathematical objects, such as sets of numbers and functions, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of abstract algebra. An important concept here is that of vectors, generalized to vector spaces, and studied in linear algebra. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics: quantity, structure, and space. Vector calculus expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. Number theory Abstract algebra Group theory Order theory [edit] Space The study of space originates with geometry - in particular, Euclidean geometry. Trigonometry combines space and number, and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, non-Euclidean geometries (which play a central role in general relativity) and topology. Quantity and space both play a role in analytic geometry, differential geometry, and algebraic geometry. Within differential geometry are the concepts of fiber bundles and calculus on manifolds. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of topological groups, which combine structure and space. Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change. Topology in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing Poincaré conjecture and the controversial four color theorem, whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. Geometry Trigonometry Differential geometry Topology Fractal geometry [edit] Change Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the natural sciences, and calculus was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. Functions arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as real analysis, with complex analysis the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The Riemann hypothesis, one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. Functional analysis focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) spaces of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as differential equations. Many phenomena in nature can be described by dynamical systems; chaos theory makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still deterministic behavior. Calculus Vector calculus Differential equations Dynamical systems Chaos theory [edit] Foundations and philosophy In order to clarify the foundations of mathematics, the fields of mathematical logic and set theory were developed. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigid axiomatic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that there are always true theorems which cannot be proven. Modern logic is divided into recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science. P \Rightarrow Q \, Mathematical logic Set theory Category theory [edit] Discrete mathematics Discrete mathematics is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in theoretical computer science. This includes computability theory, computational complexity theory, and information theory. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the Turing machine. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically soluble by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence concepts such as compression and entropy. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems. [15] It is widely believed that the answer to this problem is no. [16] \begin{matrix} (1,2,3) & (1,3,2) \\ (2,1,3) & (2,3,1) \\ (3,1,2) & (3,2,1) \end{matrix} Combinatorics Theory of computation Cryptography Graph theory [edit] Applied mathematics Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in the sciences, business, and other areas. An important field in applied mathematics is statistics, which uses probability theory as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. Most experiments, surveys and observational studies require the informed use of statistics. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) Numerical analysis investigates computational methods for efficiently solving a broad range of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity; it includes the study of rounding errors or other sources of error in computation. Mathematical physics • Analytical mechanics • Mathematical fluid dynamics • Numerical analysis • Optimization • Probability • Statistics • Mathematical economics • Financial mathematics • Game theory • Mathematical biology • Cryptography • Operations research [edit] Common misconceptions Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. Pseudomathematics is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside academia, and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally-accepted mathematics is similar to that between pseudoscience and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: * misunderstanding of the implications of mathematical rigor; * attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of mathematical papers in a learned journal after peer review, often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; * lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. The case of Kurt Heegner's work shows that the mathematical establishment is neither infallible, nor unwilling to admit error in assessing 'amateur' work. And like astronomy, mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as Fermat and Mersenne. [edit] Relationship between mathematics and physical reality Mathematical concepts and theorems need not correspond to anything in the physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematicians and physicists may select axioms and postulates that seem reasonable and intuitive, it is not necessary for the basic assumptions within an axiomatic system to be true in an empirical or physical sense. Thus, while most systems of axioms are derived from our perceptions and experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving real-world problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences. [edit] See also * Mathematics portal * Philosophy of mathematics * Mathematical game * Education * Mathematical problem * Mathematics competitions [edit] Notes 1. ^ Peirce, p.97 2. ^ Jourdain 3. ^ Eves 4. ^ Peterson 5. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford English Dictionary 6. ^ Sevryuk 7. ^ Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (Contains many further references) 8. ^ See false proof for simple examples of what can go wrong in a formal proof. The history of the Four Color Theorem contains examples of false proofs accepted by other mathematicians. 9. ^ Waltershausen 10. ^ Einstein, p. 28. The quote is Einstein's answer to the question: "how can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" He, too, is concerned with The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences. 11. ^ Popper 1995, p. 56 12. ^ Ziman 13. ^ "The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics." Monastyrsky 14. ^ Riehm 15. ^ Clay Mathematics Institute P=NP 16. ^ Poll on P=NP shows the 2005 majority believes it is not equal (see section 5) [edit] References * Benson, Donald C., The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies, Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0-19-513919-4. * Boyer, Carl B., A History of Mathematics, Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0-471-54397-7. — A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. * Courant, R. and H. Robbins, What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods, Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0-19-510519-2. * Davis, Philip J. and Hersh, Reuben, The Mathematical Experience. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0-395-92968-7.— A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. * Einstein, Albert (1923). "Sidelights on Relativity (Geometry and Experience)". * Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Sixth Edition, Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0. * Gullberg, Jan, Mathematics—From the Birth of Numbers. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 0-393-04002-X. — An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. * Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. — A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online [1]. * Jourdain, Philip E. B., The Nature of Mathematics, in The World of Mathematics, James R. Newman, editor, Dover, 2003, ISBN 0-486-43268-8. * Kline, Morris, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0-19-506135-7. * Monastyrsky, Michael (2001). "Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal". Canadian Mathematical Society. Retrieved on 2006-07-28. * Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0-19-861186-2. * The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-861112-9. * Pappas, Theoni, The Joy Of Mathematics, Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0-933174-65-9. * Peirce, Benjamin. "Linear Associative Algebra". American Journal of Mathematics (Vol. 4, No. 1/4. (1881). JSTOR. * Peterson, Ivars, Mathematical Tourist, New and Updated Snapshots of Modern Mathematics, Owl Books, 2001, ISBN 0-8050-7159-8. * Paulos, John Allen (1996). A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper. Anchor. ISBN 0-385-48254-X. * Popper, Karl R. (1995). “On knowledge”, In Search of a Better World: Lectures and Essays from Thirty Years. Routeledge. ISBN 0-415-13548-6. * Riehm, Carl (August 2002). "The Early History of the Fields Medal". Notices of the AMS 49 (7): 778-782. * Sevryuk, Mikhail B. (January 2006). "Book Reviews" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 43 (1): 101-109. Retrieved on 2006-06-24. * Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von (1856, repr. 1965). Gauss zum Gedächtniss. Sändig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend. ISBN 3-253-01702-8. * Ziman, J.M., F.R.S. (1968). "Public Knowledge:An essay concerning the social dimension of science". [edit] External links Find more information on Mathematics by searching Wikipedia's sister projects: Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews Learning resources from Wikiversity Wikiversity At Wikiversity you can learn about: School:Mathematics * Online "Encyclopaedia of Mathematics" from Springer. Graduate-level reference work with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics. * Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles — A collection of articles on various mathematical topics, with interactive Java illustrations at cut-the-knot * Some mathematics applets, at MIT * Rusin, Dave: The Mathematical Atlas. A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. (Can also be found here.) * Stefanov, Alexandre: Textbooks in Mathematics. A list of free online textbooks and lecture notes in mathematics. * Weisstein, Eric et al.: MathWorld: World of Mathematics. An online encyclopedia of mathematics. * Polyanin, Andrei: EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. An online resource focusing on algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential (mathematical physics), integral, and other mathematical equations. * Planet Math. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses the GFDL, allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses TeX markup. * Mathforge. A news-blog with topics ranging from popular mathematics to popular physics to computer science and education. * Metamath. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations. * Mathematician Biographies. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Extensive history and quotes from all famous mathematicians. * Cain, George: Online Mathematics Textbooks available free online. * Math & Logic: The history of formal mathematical, logical, linguistic and methodological ideas. In The Dictionary of the History of Ideas. * Nrich, a prize-winning site for students from age five from Cambridge University * 'FreeScience Library->Mathematics ' The mathematics section of FreeScience library | ||
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